Claims register: library articles
158 claims. Each was checked against its source during drafting; none has had expert review yet.
| Claim | Evidence | Sources | Pages |
|---|---|---|---|
| There have been many definitions of dyslexia over the past century and debate about how to define it continues. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| IDA's 2002 definition describes dyslexia as a specific learning disability, neurobiological in origin, characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling and decoding, typically resulting from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected relative to other cognitive abilities and effective classroom instruction, with possible secondary effects on comprehension, vocabulary and background knowledge. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| IDA released a revised definition in 2025, its first update since 2002. | Established guidance | LD@school (Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario) (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The 2025 IDA definition keeps dyslexia as a difficulty in word reading and/or spelling involving accuracy, speed or both depending on orthography, arising from multiple interacting genetic, neurobiological and environmental influences, on a continuum of severity. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The 2025 IDA definition lists secondary consequences including effects on written expression, academic achievement, psychological well-being and employment opportunities. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The NCIL question-and-answer guide was developed under a US Department of Education grant. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The Rose (2009) definition is widely used in UK education, and the BDA has adopted the 2025 Delphi definition. | Regional law or rule | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchBritish Dyslexia Association (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The UK Delphi panel of 58 included academics, specialist teachers, educational psychologists and people with dyslexia, and accepted 42 consensus statements. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The Delphi definition begins "Dyslexia is a set of processing difficulties that affect the acquisition of reading and spelling" and says difficulties exist on a continuum, that fluency and spelling difficulties are a key marker across languages and age groups, and that the nature and trajectory depend on multiple genetic and environmental influences. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| In February 2025 the BDA said it would adopt the Delphi definition and that people diagnosed under the previous definition would continue to meet the criteria. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Comparison of IDA 2002, IDA 2025, Rose 2009 and Delphi 2025 on core difficulty, causes named, continuum, and co-occurrence. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchNational Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| DSM-5 uses "specific learning disorder in reading" and ICD-11 uses "developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading"; ICD-11 requires reading below expectations for age and intellectual ability while DSM-5 moves away from the ability-attainment discrepancy. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Some older children and adults with dyslexia continue to have word-level reading problems while others mainly have difficulties with reading and writing fluency and spelling. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Prioritizing fluency implies dyslexia can be present when some reading and spelling attainments are in the average range, increasingly accepted when assessing adults and those with extensive support. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions saySelf-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Manifestations of dyslexia can change over time depending on context, and after intervention and support reading may no longer be experienced as disabling though it may remain challenging. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| In adults, difficulties may emerge as the pace and demands of work increase or where compensatory strategies no longer work or are too tiring to sustain. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The NHS states that dyslexia does not affect intelligence. | Established guidance | NHS (England) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| A discrepancy between intellectual ability and literacy attainment is a useful indicator but not sufficient for a diagnosis on its own. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The manifestations of dyslexia differ depending on how a language is written. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions saySearching for an online dyslexia test |
| In transparent orthographies such as Spanish, Finnish or Italian, accuracy often develops relatively quickly and difficulties may be most evident in speed; in English and Danish they often appear in both accuracy and fluency. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Environmental conditions and dyslexia are not mutually exclusive; a person can have dyslexia and also experience poverty, interrupted instruction, limited access to books or linguistic variation. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| NCIL panelists call for assessment that does not exclude children from poverty or children learning English as an additional language. | Practical suggestion | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Research cited by Holden et al. found children in more affluent areas of England had higher chances than those in deprived areas of being identified with specific learning difficulties. | Regional law or rule | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Reported prevalence rates vary between about 5% and 20% depending on the cut-off used; some researchers argue prevalence is better described as a distribution of severity. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Dyslexia frequently co-occurs with other developmental difficulties including developmental language disorder, ADHD, developmental coordination disorder and dyscalculia; more research is needed on why. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions saySearching for an online dyslexia test |
| Visual stress is a separate condition from dyslexia but can make text harder to process. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Developmental dyslexia is distinguished from acquired dyslexia, which has a neurological cause such as brain injury. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| SASC guidance says SpLDs can co-exist with overlapping conditions and assessors should refer to another practitioner if necessary. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions sayWhat a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| In the Delphi definition, literacy attainment in dyslexia is weak in relation to age, standard teaching and instruction, and other attainments. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Not every person who finds reading difficult should be considered dyslexic; identification is interpreted within instructional and developmental context. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| The NHS says a GP can check for other conditions such as hearing problems and may suggest an eye test. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| SPELD NSW advises checking eyesight and hearing before seeking a dyslexia assessment. | Regional law or rule | SPELD NSW Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions sayWhat a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The SASC 2025 report format asks assessors to record vision (including a recent sight test), hearing, linguistic history, access to schooling, attendance and number of schools attended. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions sayWhat a professional dyslexia assessment may involveSelf-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| The SASC format asks assessors to note test conditions including health, attention, anxiety and fatigue, and says English as an additional language or a complex linguistic history could help explain results. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions sayWhat a professional dyslexia assessment may involveSelf-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Some people only discover they are dyslexic in adulthood, which the BDA suggests may relate to misconceptions about dyslexia. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| In older children and adults, early and persisting literacy difficulties may have been missed or masked, and these histories should be investigated. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions saySelf-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| In 2011 NICHD reported that many school systems used an IQ-reading discrepancy model to allocate specialized reading instruction, so children with dyslexia and lower IQ scores might not qualify, and that the study called the model into question. | Regional law or rule | NICHD (2011) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| A study of parents identified inadequate teacher training and insufficient school funding as perceived barriers to diagnosis, and provision in England has been described as a postcode lottery. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| US Department of Justice guidance says an absence of previous formal testing accommodations does not preclude a candidate from receiving them. | Regional law or rule | US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) Government or law | Dyslexia in adults: what the definitions say |
| Screening tests and checklists can indicate possible dyslexic difficulties but cannot provide a diagnosis. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| AUSPELD says online screening tools cannot provide a formal diagnosis of a specific learning disorder such as dyslexia. | Established guidance | AUSPELD (Australian Federation of SPELD Associations) Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| LDA describes adult screening as possibly including an informal interview, brief test, career interest inventories, or review of medical, school or work histories, while evaluation involves formal testing. | Established guidance | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Lefly and Pennington (2000) reported that a revised Adult Reading History Questionnaire showed high internal consistency and stability in two adult samples (84 adults from a familial dyslexia study and parents of 107 children), correlated with reading measures, and helped distinguish reading disability diagnoses. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Lefly and Pennington. Journal of Learning Disabilities 33(3): 286-296 (doi:10.1177/002221940003300306) (2000) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| The Dyslexia Adult Checklist study included 400 adults, half self-identified as dyslexic; its authors state screening tools are not diagnostic and should only signal people for further assessment. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Stark, Elalouf, Soldano, Franzen and Johnson. Dyslexia 31(1): e1797 (doi:10.1002/dys.1797) (2024) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| At the original cut-off the checklist had 76% sensitivity and 88% specificity; a lower cut-off gave 91.5% sensitivity and 80% specificity. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Stark, Elalouf, Soldano, Franzen and Johnson. Dyslexia 31(1): e1797 (doi:10.1002/dys.1797) (2024) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| Limitations of the checklist study: dyslexia status was self-reported and most participants were recruited from university campuses. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Stark, Elalouf, Soldano, Franzen and Johnson. Dyslexia 31(1): e1797 (doi:10.1002/dys.1797) (2024) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| STEC generally does not review materials designed for screening. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| The BDA says dyslexia can only be formally diagnosed through a diagnostic assessment by a certified assessor. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Multiple sources of information should be combined in assessment, and standardized test results provide objectivity, consistency and reliability alongside professional judgment. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| SASC asks for diagnostic conclusions based on converging evidence from history, background, observation, discussion and test results, related to a referenced definition, with a report containing a diagnostic decision and recommendations. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different thingsWhat a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Information about whether an adult had literacy difficulties in the early school years supports identification. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Individuals with reading difficulties should be referred for specialist assessment if there is consistent lack of progress despite targeted assistance. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| All individuals with literacy difficulties require appropriate, targeted intervention, monitoring and resources. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| Dyslexia assessment is required for many purposes and its content should be aligned to its purpose. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Assessors choose tests in response to the individual and the reason for referral; the report states the reason for assessment. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The SASC format covers health and developmental history, family history, linguistic history, educational and work history, and the individual's voice; adult assessments should uncover factors that limited literacy over the lifetime. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional bodyHolden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| SASC asks for visual history and visual difficulties questionnaires ideally before assessment, with referral to a vision practitioner if needed. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The SASC test list groups tests into cognitive areas (ability/reasoning, memory, phonological awareness/memory/rapid naming, processing speed) and attainment (reading, spelling, writing, mathematics); some are restricted to psychologists. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| In the US, testing for learning disabilities usually covers cognitive potential, information processing and current achievement, typically six to eight hours over two or three sessions (LD OnLine). | Regional law or rule | Kathleen Ross Kidder, LD OnLine (WETA) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| STEC reviews tests on criteria including age and educational level appropriateness and standardization sample size and spread. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involveSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| SASC recommends assessment sessions be contained within four weeks unless there are unusual circumstances. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| SASC remote assessment guidance applies from October 2026, and some publishers have not permitted remote use of their tests. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2026) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| LDA says the assessment produces a statement of results including any LD identified, with recommendations for work, school or daily living. | Established guidance | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The SASC report begins with a diagnostic decision; insufficient evidence must be stated and explained; feedback is good practice; recipients agreed in writing in advance; onward referral where relevant. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The SASC 2025 report format will be required from 1 January 2027. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| In the US, LDA says only qualified professionals can conduct adult LD assessments; LD OnLine lists clinical psychologists, school psychologists and neuropsychologists among those who can diagnose and notes licensing varies by state. | Regional law or rule | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional bodyKathleen Ross Kidder, LD OnLine (WETA) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| US adults can seek evaluation at university-affiliated clinics and psychology departments and state vocational rehabilitation agencies; VR agencies sometimes provide LD assessments at no cost during intake. | Regional law or rule | Understood.org Charity or professional bodyLearning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Testing entities should defer to documentation from a qualified professional who is licensed or otherwise properly credentialed. | Regional law or rule | US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) Government or law | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Most agencies that grant accommodations have their own documentation policy. | Regional law or rule | Kathleen Ross Kidder, LD OnLine (WETA) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| In England a dyslexia assessment is usually done by an educational psychologist or specialist teacher, not a doctor, and most people pay. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| SASC recommends specialist teacher assessors hold an APC from the BDA, Dyslexia Guild or PATOSS, renewed every three years; practitioner psychologists are HCPC-registered. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional bodySpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional bodyBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Dyslexia Scotland prefers to say assessing or identifying dyslexia rather than diagnosing. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Scotland Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| For students living in England, DSA evidence for an SpLD is a diagnostic assessment from a practitioner psychologist or suitably qualified specialist teacher (APC holder), following SASC formats and tests; the student usually pays, and there is no lower age limit on the report. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or lawSpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional bodySpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involveSearching for an online dyslexia test |
| Dyslexia Ireland provides adult assessments through psychologists and says there is no free state provision for adults. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Ireland Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The DARE 2026 guide required a psychological assessment report or school statement plus two literacy attainment scores at or below the 10th percentile from testing on or after 1 February 2024. | Regional law or rule | Disability Access Route to Education (DARE), via CAO (2026) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| In Ontario, diagnosing a learning disability is a controlled act limited to psychologists and psychological associates registered with the College of Psychologists of Ontario, and not every registrant assesses LDs. | Regional law or rule | Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involveSelf-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| SPELD NSW says dyslexia is diagnosed by a psychologist, uses the term specific learning disorder in reading, and its assessments are by a registered psychologist and available to adults; AUSPELD lists SPELD organizations in several states. | Regional law or rule | SPELD NSW Charity or professional bodySPELD NSW Charity or professional bodyAUSPELD (Australian Federation of SPELD Associations) Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| LDA suggests asking whether the evaluator has tested many adults, will explain the report, and will recommend where to get further help. | Practical suggestion | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The FTC warns health apps may not be covered by HIPAA and some use data for research or ads or share or sell it; it advises reading the privacy notice and checking settings. | Regional law or rule | US Federal Trade Commission, Consumer Advice (2021) Government or law | Searching for an online dyslexia test |
| Reading fluency and spelling difficulties are a key marker of dyslexia in the Delphi definition; a self-report quiz asks about these rather than measuring them with standardized tests. | Practical suggestion | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Searching for an online dyslexia test |
| On iPhone, spoken-text options are under Settings > Accessibility > Read & Speak; Speak Selection adds a Speak button for selected text and Speak Screen reads the whole screen after a two-finger swipe down from the top, with controls for pausing, rate and Speak on Touch. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Accessibility Reader on iPhone is a full-screen reading view with settings for text and background color, font, size, line, word and character spacing, and spoken playback with highlighting; it opens from the Accessibility Shortcut, Control Center or the share menu. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| On a Mac, Speak selection is under System Settings > Accessibility > Read & Speak, and the default shortcut to start and stop speaking selected text is Option-Esc. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Safari Reader shows an article without navigation and clutter; on iPhone it is opened with Show Reader and can be set to Use Reader Automatically, and on Mac it is opened from the Smart Search field with adjustable background, font and zoom. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentationApple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Immersive Reader in Microsoft Edge opens from the address bar icon or F9 and includes Read Aloud, text size and spacing, page themes, Line focus, Picture dictionary and Translate; Microsoft says it was originally designed for readers with dyslexia and dysgraphia and that anyone can use it. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Microsoft Edge Immersive Reader page themes include options inspired by Irlen Spectral Filters. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| In Word for Windows, View > Immersive Reader offers Column Width, Page Color, Line Focus, Text Spacing, Syllables and Read Aloud. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Review > Read Aloud reads Word documents on Windows and macOS in Microsoft 365, Office 2019 and Office 2021. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Android Select to Speak is turned on under Settings > Accessibility > Select to Speak; selected text can also be read with Read aloud from the More menu without turning it on. | Practical suggestion | Google Accessibility Help Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Android Reading mode is a separate Play Store app that needs Android 9 or later, runs only on phones, offers display and audio settings, and does not currently support PDFs, emails, chat messages or social media feeds. | Practical suggestion | Google Accessibility Help Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Chrome reading mode on a computer opens from the right-click menu or More > More tools > Reading mode and lets users change typeface, font size, color theme, line height and letter spacing, and read text aloud with highlighting. | Practical suggestion | Google Chrome Help Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| iPhone dictation is enabled under Settings > General > Keyboard > Enable Dictation and supports spoken punctuation, spelling words letter by letter and editing commands. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Windows voice typing starts with the Windows logo key + H and needs an internet connection and a working microphone. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Dictate in Word (Home > Dictate) is available to Microsoft 365 subscribers. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Word Editor, opened from the Review tab, checks spelling, grammar and some style issues, and suggestions can be read aloud. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| On iPhone, Settings > Accessibility > Display & Text Size includes Larger Text and Bold Text, and a Text Size control can be added to Control Center. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Accessibility Reader, Word Immersive Reader and Chrome reading mode each include controls for line or letter spacing. | Practical suggestion | Apple (2026) Product documentationMicrosoft Support Product documentationGoogle Chrome Help Product documentation | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| The U.S. National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled is free, and eligibility includes people certified by a competent authority as having a reading disability; certifiers include doctors, educators, social workers and librarians. | Regional law or rule | National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled, Library of Congress Government or law | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Bookshare lists reading disabilities such as dyslexia among qualifying conditions for adults and requires confirmation from a professional with appropriate expertise. | Regional law or rule | Bookshare (Benetech) Charity or professional body | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Bookshare says it is free for U.S. students with a qualifying disability such as dyslexia, and an IEP or 504 plan is not required. | Regional law or rule | Bookshare (Benetech) Charity or professional body | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research saysReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| RNIB Bookshare names people unable to read print effectively because of dyslexia among those who qualify; it is free for UK schools and colleges, charges universities, learning centres and tutoring services, and learners access it through their institution. | Regional law or rule | RNIB Bookshare Charity or professional bodyRNIB Bookshare Charity or professional bodyRNIB Bookshare Charity or professional body | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research saysReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| A 2018 meta-analysis of 22 studies (grade 3 and above, including some postsecondary and adult samples) found an average weighted effect of 0.35 (95% CI 0.14 to 0.56) of text-to-speech and read-aloud tools on reading comprehension for students with reading disabilities, with study design moderating results; the authors say the tools may assist comprehension and more research is needed. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Wood SG, Moxley JH, Tighe EL, Wagner RK. Journal of Learning Disabilities 51(1):73-84. doi:10.1177/0022219416688170 (2018) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research saysReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| In a single-subject study of 12 elementary students with dyslexia, OpenDyslexic did not improve reading rate or accuracy compared with Arial and Times New Roman, and no participant reported preferring it. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Wery JJ, Diliberto JA. Annals of Dyslexia 67(2):114-127. doi:10.1007/s11881-016-0127-1 (2017) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| Two experiments with more than 300 children found the Dyslexie font did not make reading faster or more accurate, and most children preferred Arial or Times New Roman. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Kuster SM, van Weerdenburg M, Gompel M, Bosman AMT. Annals of Dyslexia 68(1):25-42. doi:10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6 (2018) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| A 2016 systematic review of 51 published items found most studies of colored overlays and lenses had high or uncertain risk of bias, gains were small or similar to placebo, and concluded their use for reading difficulties cannot be endorsed. | Established guidance | Griffiths PG, Taylor RH, Henderson LM, Barrett BT. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 36(5):519-544. doi:10.1111/opo.12316 (2016) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| A 2009 joint statement led by the American Academy of Pediatrics and a 2011 joint technical report said scientific evidence does not support tinted or colored lenses and filters for improving educational performance in learning disabilities. | Established guidance | American Academy of Pediatrics; American Academy of Ophthalmology; American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus; American Association of Certified Orthoptists. Pediatrics 124(2):837-844 (2009) Peer-reviewed researchHandler SM, Fierson WM, et al., for the American Academy of Pediatrics and partner eye-care organizations. Pediatrics 127(3):e818-e856 (2011) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| The British Dyslexia Association says visual difficulties or discomfort should be discussed with an optician regardless of whether a person seeks an assessment. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| In England, the NHS says dyslexia assessments are usually done by an educational psychologist or a dyslexia specialist, not a doctor, and most people have to pay. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA says that before testing there is usually an informal chat to gather background information. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The International Dyslexia Association's 2021 assessment guidelines list main concerns, educational history, behavioral and emotional history, peer and social skills, sleep, health, family history and social history as parts of the history, including family history of learning difficulties and past hearing problems. | Established guidance | Tridas E, Cardenas-Hagan E, White J, Elbeheri G, Cheesman E. International Dyslexia Association (2021) Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| For its service, the BDA says adults should have had a sight test within the last two years and an up-to-date hearing check is helpful; unchecked visual difficulties can lead to an inconclusive outcome. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional bodyBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA service requires at least seven years living in an English-speaking country and regularly speaking English, because its tests are heavily influenced by English-speaking culture. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA says assessors need information about previous assessments or study support to avoid repeating tests, which may make results invalid. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA's employer guide notes that some adults were diagnosed as children but no longer have evidence of the diagnosis. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA says both specialist teachers and psychologists can diagnose dyslexia, and a psychologist may be engaged where someone has more complex or multiple needs. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| U.S. Department of Justice guidance says documentation requests for testing accommodations must be reasonable, proof of past testing accommodations in similar settings is generally sufficient, and an absence of previous formal accommodations does not preclude receiving them. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) Government or law | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to askReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| In England, a Disabled Students' Allowance application for a specific learning difficulty needs a diagnostic assessment from a practitioner psychologist or suitably qualified specialist teacher, and applicants must be eligible for Student Finance England support. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or law | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to askReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| SASC recommends that specialist teacher assessors hold a current Assessment Practising Certificate, renewed every three years, refers psychologists to the HCPC, and publishes a register of current APC holders. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional bodySpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| JCQ says an external assessor's report can only be used as evidence for access arrangements if the assessor liaised with the school or college and received the paperwork before the assessment. | Regional law or rule | Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) (2025) Government or law | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to askReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| The U.S. Office for Civil Rights says colleges may set reasonable documentation standards, some require more than others, and documentation may include the date of diagnosis, how it was reached and the professional credentials. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights Government or law | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to askReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| The BDA says that when an employer pays for an assessment, it shares only a summary report without test scores, and only with written permission. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA says its diagnostic assessments usually take up to three hours, cover reading, writing and spelling and skills such as phonological awareness, processing speed and memory, and that scoring and analysis take time before the written report. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |
| The BDA's 2023 employer guide suggests agendas and information in advance of meetings, and lists delegated note-taking, note-taking software and recording devices as possible adjustments. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The BDA's employer guide says the diagnosis is not necessarily important for providing reasonable adjustments, the impact on everyday tasks is what matters, and a diagnostic report should not be a requirement for receiving adjustments. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The ADA employment provisions enforced by the EEOC cover employers with 15 or more employees, define disability as an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity (or a record of, or being regarded as having, one), list accommodations such as modified equipment, adjusted training materials and readers, and exclude accommodations causing undue hardship. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| EEOC guidance says accommodation requests can be in plain English, need not mention the ADA, need not be in writing; employers may ask for reasonable documentation when the need is not obvious and may choose among effective accommodations, giving primary consideration to the employee preference. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Job Accommodation Network offers free, confidential guidance, and its learning disability page lists reading-related ideas such as text readers, screen reading software and optical character recognition. | Regional law or rule | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Equality Act 2010 defines disability as a physical or mental impairment with a substantial and long-term adverse effect on the ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| Section 20 of the Equality Act 2010 requires reasonable steps to avoid substantial disadvantage, including auxiliary aids and providing information in an accessible format. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| GOV.UK says employers must make reasonable adjustments for disabled workers, including trainees and contract workers. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Equality Act 2010 forms part of the law of England and Wales and of Scotland, and only listed provisions extend to Northern Ireland. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| Access to Work is for people aged 16 or over in paid work in England, Scotland or Wales; GOV.UK names ADHD or dyslexia as examples, says a formal diagnosis is not needed to apply, and says the grant is not repaid and does not cover adjustments employers must legally make. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or lawGOV.UK Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| In Northern Ireland, nidirect says employers must meet the Disability Discrimination Act and have a duty to make reasonable adjustments for covered employees; a separate Access to Work scheme is run by the Department for Communities and excludes adjustments employers must legally make. | Regional law or rule | nidirect (Northern Ireland Government) Government or lawnidirect (Northern Ireland Government) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Irish Employment Equality Act 1998 defines disability to include a condition that results in a person learning differently; IHREC says employers must take effective practical steps unless this imposes a disproportionate burden, and complaints go to the Workplace Relations Commission with strict time limits. | Regional law or rule | Irish Statute Book (1998) Government or lawIrish Human Rights and Equality Commission (IHREC) Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| Under the Canadian Human Rights Act, federally regulated employers have a duty to accommodate up to undue hardship; workers need not disclose a specific diagnosis, only workplace barriers, and cannot insist on the ideal option if a reasonable one is offered. | Regional law or rule | Canadian Human Rights Commission Government or lawCanadian Human Rights Commission Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Ontario Human Rights Code definition of disability includes a learning disability, and the Ontario Human Rights Commission says organizations can generally ask about the nature of a disability as opposed to a medical diagnosis. | Regional law or rule | Ontario Human Rights Commission Charity or professional bodyOntario Human Rights Commission Charity or professional body | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustmentsReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| The Australian Disability Discrimination Act 1992 defines disability to include a disorder or malfunction that results in the person learning differently, and refers to reasonable adjustments; the Australian Human Rights Commission says it covers earning a living and getting an education, alongside the Fair Work Act 2009 and state and territory agencies. | Regional law or rule | Federal Register of Legislation, Australian Government (1992) Government or lawAustralian Human Rights Commission Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustmentsReading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| JobAccess, maintained by the Australian Department of Social Services, offers a free, confidential advice line on 1800 464 800 and information on the Employment Assistance Fund. | Regional law or rule | JobAccess, Australian Government Department of Social Services Government or law | Reading at work: practical approaches and asking for adjustments |
| The Office for Civil Rights lists note takers, recording devices and extended testing time among academic adjustments, and says colleges need not change the substantive content of a test. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| JCQ describes access arrangements as letting students show what they know without changing the demands of the exam, gives 25% extra time as an example, says a diagnosis alone does not entitle a student to them, and says the school or college decides, using its appointed assessor; further education students should record needs on enrollment forms. | Regional law or rule | Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) (2025) Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| The Office for Civil Rights says disclosure to a college is voluntary but required to receive an academic adjustment; an IEP or 504 plan is generally not sufficient documentation on its own; and neither the high school nor the college must pay for a new evaluation. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| AHEAD guidance treats the student's self-report as primary documentation alongside staff observation and third-party records, and says no legislation or regulation requires documentation to be obtained to seek reasonable accommodations, though colleges may request a reasonable level. | Regional law or rule | Association on Higher Education And Disability (AHEAD) Charity or professional body | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| In England, DSA depends on individual needs rather than household income, is not repaid, and involves a needs assessment after an eligibility letter. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| SAAS 2026-2027 DSA notes say there is no age limit, first-year applications need diagnostic evidence and a needs assessment report, and SAAS will not cover diagnosis costs, though institutions may help from discretionary funds. | Regional law or rule | Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS) (2026) Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| UCAS guidance says DSA in Wales is handled by Student Finance Wales and a specific learning difficulty needs a diagnostic assessment. | Regional law or rule | UCAS Charity or professional body | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| In Northern Ireland, nidirect says DSA covers specific learning difficulties such as dyslexia and does not have to be repaid. | Regional law or rule | nidirect (Northern Ireland Government) Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| Section 91 of the Equality Act 2010 places duties on further and higher education institutions toward students, with extent in England, Wales and Scotland. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or law | Reading while studying: managing reading loads, notes and exams |
| NICHD says it is not involved in setting definitions or guidelines for diagnosing reading disorders. | Established guidance | Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (2020) Government or law | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The University of Pennsylvania expects a diagnostic interview covering developmental, medical, academic, family, psychosocial and employment history, including the language spoken at home. | Regional law or rule | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania University | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| US university documentation guidelines name aptitude or cognitive ability, academic achievement and information processing, and Penn says a diagnosis should not rest on any single test or subtest. | Regional law or rule | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania UniversityServices to Students with Disabilities, California State University, San Bernardino (2022) University | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| NICHD describes providers using a series of tests of memory, spelling, visual perception and reading. | Established guidance | Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (2020) Government or law | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Norm-referenced tests describe performance relative to others who took the same test; US university guidelines ask for tests normed on adults. | Established guidance | ERIC, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education Peer-reviewed researchWeingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania UniversityServices to Students with Disabilities, California State University, San Bernardino (2022) University | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| The York Adult Assessment-Revised was normed on 106 adults without dyslexia and checked against 20 adults with dyslexia. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Warmington, Stothard and Snowling. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 13(1): 48-56 (2013) Peer-reviewed research | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| Queen Mary University of London says the diagnostic assessments its disability service arranges are done remotely and take around three hours. | Regional law or rule | Disability and Dyslexia Service, Queen Mary University of London University | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| A 2017 meta-analysis of 12 crossover studies in adults found verbal tasks unaffected by videoconference administration, a picture-naming test slightly lower, and other results too mixed to combine. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Brearly TW, Shura RD, Martindale SL, et al. Neuropsychology Review 27(2):174-186 (2017) Peer-reviewed research | What a professional dyslexia assessment may involve |
| A 2017 systematic review of assistive technology for people aged 14 and older (38 intervention studies) found the largest effect for word processing with spell and grammar checks, small group-level effects for text-to-speech, and speech-to-text studies too varied to pool. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Perelmutter, McGregor and Gordon. Computers & Education 114: 139-163 (2017) Peer-reviewed research | Reading tools and accessibility features: what is built in and what the research says |
| In a 2012 study, adult self-ratings of reading tracked literacy test scores closely but missed some adults with low literacy. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Snowling, Dawes, Nash and Hulme. Dyslexia 18(1): 1-15 (2012) Peer-reviewed research | Self-reflection, screening, and assessment are different things |
| The University of Pennsylvania expects an adult evaluation interview covering developmental, medical, academic, family, psychosocial and employment history, including the language spoken at home. | Regional law or rule | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania University | Preparing for a dyslexia assessment: what to gather and what to ask |