Claims register: questions
187 claims. Each was checked against its source during drafting; none has had expert review yet.
| Claim | Evidence | Sources | Pages |
|---|---|---|---|
| The BDA suggests misconceptions are part of why some people only discover they are dyslexic in adulthood, including the assumption that dyslexia affects only reading and writing rather than also memory and organization. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| A 2025 consensus study agreed that in older children and adults, early and persisting literacy difficulties may have been missed or masked, and assessors should investigate those histories. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| The BDA's employer guide says dyslexia is not routinely identified at school in the UK, assessments usually need to be privately funded, cost leaves many people undiagnosed, and some adults diagnosed as children have no evidence of it. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| Rising pace and demands at work, and coping strategies that stop working or become too tiring, are points where adult difficulties may surface. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| Assessors are expected to look closely at an adult's educational and personal history. | Established guidance | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| Some adults with dyslexia continue to have word-level reading problems while others mainly have fluency and spelling difficulties, so dyslexia can be identified in adults when some scores are in the average range. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Can you have dyslexia and read well? |
| The SASC list of suitable tests (June 2024) says there are limited tests for adults over 25 and that tests covering ages 18 to 24 can be used and reported qualitatively where no adult-normed test exists. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Is there a dyslexia test for adults?Glossary |
| The June 2024 SASC list gives an age range of 4:0 to 24:11 for the CTOPP-2, which includes elision, blending, phonological memory and rapid naming subtests. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?Glossary |
| The NHS says an adult dyslexia assessment is not done by a medical doctor and is usually done by an educational psychologist or a dyslexia specialist; most people need to pay; adults who think they may have dyslexia can have a diagnostic assessment. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults?Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| In the US, professionals licensed to diagnose learning disabilities, such as clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists and qualified school or educational psychologists, carry out evaluations; licensure varies by role and state; educational specialists, counselors, social workers, speech-language specialists and occupational therapists cannot make the diagnosis. | Regional law or rule | Kathleen Ross Kidder, LD OnLine (WETA) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults?Dyslexia and ADHD in adultsWhat is dysgraphia? |
| Dyslexia Ireland, the Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario and SPELD NSW each describe dyslexia assessment by psychologists. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Ireland Charity or professional bodyLearning Disabilities Association of Ontario Charity or professional bodySPELD NSW Charity or professional bodySPELD NSW Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| Dyslexia Ireland says there is no free state provision of dyslexia assessment for adults in Ireland. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Ireland Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| The LDA says state vocational rehabilitation agencies sometimes provide learning disability assessments at no cost as part of intake, some clinics and university psychology departments use sliding-scale fees, and (as read in October 2026, undated) US costs typically range between $500 and $2,500. | Regional law or rule | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| SASC remote assessment guidance is to be followed from October 2026 and allows remote use of tests only where the publisher has given permission. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2026) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| US Department of Justice guidance says documentation requests for testing accommodations should be reasonable and limited, and an absence of previous accommodations does not preclude a candidate from receiving them. | Regional law or rule | US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) Government or law | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| When the BDA adopted the Delphi definition in February 2025, it said people diagnosed under the previous definition would continue to meet the criteria. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association (2025) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| The NHS says a GP cannot diagnose dyslexia but can check for other conditions and may suggest an eye test. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| For 2026 applications, the DARE scheme in Ireland asks for literacy attainment scores from testing on or after 1 February 2024. | Regional law or rule | Disability Access Route to Education (DARE), via CAO (2026) Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| The BDA says screening tests and checklists cannot provide a diagnosis and dyslexia can only be formally diagnosed through a diagnostic assessment by a certified assessor; AUSPELD says online screening tools cannot provide a formal diagnosis. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional bodyAUSPELD (Australian Federation of SPELD Associations) Charity or professional body | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?Glossary |
| A 2024 study of the Dyslexia Adult Checklist recruited 400 adults, 200 self-identified as dyslexic without proof of diagnosis; at a cut-off of 45 sensitivity was 76% and specificity 88%, at 40 sensitivity was 91.5% and specificity 80%; the authors say screening tools are not diagnostic and the mostly university sample may not represent other settings. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Stark, Elalouf, Soldano, Franzen and Johnson. Dyslexia 31(1): e1797 (doi:10.1002/dys.1797) (2024) Peer-reviewed research | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?Glossary |
| A US adult learning disability evaluation usually covers intellectual or cognitive ability, information processing and current educational achievement; assessments for LD and ADHD usually take six to eight hours, often over two or three sessions. | Regional law or rule | Kathleen Ross Kidder, LD OnLine (WETA) Charity or professional body | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?How long does a dyslexia assessment take?Is dyslexia related to intelligence?Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| The SASC list divides tests into a cognitive profile (ability and reasoning, memory, phonological processing, rapid naming, processing speed, motor coordination) and attainment (reading, spelling, writing, mathematics), and no assessment is expected to use every section; STEC generally does not review screening materials. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?How long does a dyslexia assessment take?Is dyslexia related to intelligence?Does dyslexia affect math?Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| The June 2024 SASC list gives age ranges of 6:0 to 24:11 for TOWRE-2, 16:0 to 64 for ART2, 5:0 to 85+ for WRAT5 and 16:0 to 90:11 for WAIS-IV UK (psychologists only). | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | Is there a dyslexia test for adults? |
| UK assessors are asked to record vision, hearing, language background and schooling in the report, and identification should draw on multiple sources of evidence. | Established guidance | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional bodyHolden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is there a dyslexia test for adults?How long does a dyslexia assessment take?Can dyslexia start in adulthood?Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| The JCQ says a diagnosis alone does not entitle a candidate to exam access arrangements and the centre decides. | Regional law or rule | Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) (2025) Government or law | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| For Disabled Students' Allowance in England, GOV.UK asks for a diagnostic assessment from a practitioner psychologist or suitably qualified specialist teacher. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or law | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults?Glossary |
| SASC names three APC awarding bodies (BDA, Dyslexia Guild, PATOSS), says the certificate is renewed every three years, refers psychologists to the HCPC, and keeps a register of assessors with a current APC. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional bodySpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| The BDA says both psychologists and specialist teachers can diagnose dyslexia, and a psychologist may be engaged where needs are more complex or several conditions may be involved. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults?How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| Dyslexia Scotland prefers the terms assessing or identifying dyslexia rather than diagnosing. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Scotland Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| The LDA advises choosing an assessor experienced with adults and suggests asking how many adults they have tested and who will see the results. | Practical suggestion | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| Understood.org lists university clinics and psychology departments, state vocational rehabilitation agencies and LDA chapters as places US adults can seek evaluation. | Regional law or rule | Understood.org Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| OCR says colleges may set reasonable documentation standards, a high school IEP or 504 plan is generally not sufficient on its own, and colleges need not pay for new evaluations. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights Government or law | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults?Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| LDAO says only a psychologist or psychological associate registered with the College of Psychologists of Ontario, with no certificate restrictions, can make the diagnosis because communicating a diagnosis is a controlled act. | Regional law or rule | Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| SPELD NSW says dyslexia is diagnosed by a psychologist, gives the clinical name specific learning disorder in reading, and advises checking eyesight and hearing first. | Regional law or rule | SPELD NSW Charity or professional body | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| The BDA says a diagnostic assessment usually takes up to three hours, gives no fixed report time, and says the assessor needs time to calculate scores and analyze results before reaching a diagnosis, though initial thoughts may be shared. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| Dyslexia Ireland says its assessment takes approximately one to two hours, with brief verbal feedback and a written report sent within four weeks. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Ireland Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| The SASC report format asks assessors to record health, attention, anxiety and fatigue during testing, and notes that SpLDs can overlap and assessors should refer on when needed. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| The BDA asks adults to have had a sight test within the last two years and says an up-to-date hearing check is helpful; unchecked visual issues can lead to an inconclusive outcome. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional bodyBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| The LDA suggests asking an assessor how long the assessment will take. | Practical suggestion | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| The DSA needs assessment comes after a letter confirming eligibility; the BDA describes a workplace needs assessment as a separate process exploring adjustments. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or lawBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| Under the ADA a person with a disability has an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity, a record of one, or is regarded as having one; Title I applies to employers with 15 or more employees. | Regional law or rule | US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?Glossary |
| The ADA lists learning, reading, concentrating, thinking and communicating as major life activities, requires broad construction, and disregards mitigating measures including assistive technology and learned behavioral or adaptive neurological modifications. | Regional law or rule | United States Code (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) University | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| EEOC interpretive guidance says individuals diagnosed with dyslexia will typically be substantially limited in learning, reading and thinking once mitigating measures are disregarded, and that someone with a learning disability may achieve academic success yet be substantially limited because of extra time or effort. | Regional law or rule | US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) University | Is dyslexia a disability?Can you have dyslexia and read well? |
| IDEA regulations define specific learning disability and name dyslexia; FAPE runs from ages 3 to 21 and ends on graduation with a regular high school diploma. | Regional law or rule | US Department of Education regulations (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) UniversityUS Department of Education regulations (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) UniversityUS Department of Education regulations (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) University | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| Section 504 prohibits disability discrimination in programs receiving federal financial assistance, including colleges and universities, and in federal agencies. | Regional law or rule | United States Code (Cornell Legal Information Institute copy) UniversityUS Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (ADA.gov) (2020) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| The Equality Act 2010 defines disability as an impairment with a substantial and long-term adverse effect on normal day-to-day activities; substantial means more than minor or trivial and long-term means 12 months or more. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or lawGOV.UK Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| 2011 UK guidance lists dyslexia among developmental impairments, treats persistent and significant difficulty reading written material in the native language as a substantial effect but not minor problems with writing or spelling, and notes coping strategies can stop working, for example for someone with dyslexia under stress. | Regional law or rule | Office for Disability Issues, HM Government (2011) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?GlossaryCan you have dyslexia and read well? |
| UK guidance says the cause of an impairment need not be established, and the EHRC employment code says there is no need for a medically diagnosed cause. | Regional law or rule | Office for Disability Issues, HM Government (2011) Government or lawEquality and Human Rights Commission (2011) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability? |
| The Equality Act extends to England, Wales and Scotland; Northern Ireland has separate disability law. | Regional law or rule | legislation.gov.uk (2010) Government or lawnidirect (Northern Ireland Government) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| Ireland's Employment Equality Act 1998 and Australia's Disability Discrimination Act 1992 include a condition resulting in a person learning differently; the Ontario Human Rights Code definition includes a learning disability. | Regional law or rule | Irish Statute Book (1998) Government or lawFederal Register of Legislation, Australian Government (1992) Government or lawOntario Human Rights Commission Charity or professional body | Is dyslexia a disability? |
| In UK usage Mencap defines learning disability as a reduced intellectual ability and describes dyslexia as a learning difficulty that does not affect intellect; in US usage the LDA lists dyslexia as a common learning disability. | Established guidance | Mencap Charity or professional bodyLearning Disabilities Association of America (2025) Charity or professional body | Is dyslexia a disability?Glossary |
| JAN provides free, expert and confidential guidance on workplace accommodations and is funded by the US Department of Labor Office of Disability Employment Policy. | Regional law or rule | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexiaGlossaryDyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| EEOC guidance says an accommodation request can be in plain English, need not mention the ADA or the phrase reasonable accommodation, and need not be in writing. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexiaGlossary |
| When the disability or need is not obvious, a US employer may ask for reasonable documentation about the disability and functional limitations, but in most situations cannot request complete medical records; the EEOC example of a marketing employee with a learning disability requesting a laptop illustrates this. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| JAN says learning disabilities are usually diagnosed by a psychologist rather than medical doctors, and older documentation is sometimes sufficient, especially testing at or above age 18. | Regional law or rule | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work? |
| The ADA requires medical information obtained or voluntarily disclosed to be treated as a confidential medical record shared only in limited circumstances. | Regional law or rule | US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2000) Government or lawJob Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| Acas says employers should offer support whether or not a worker has a diagnosis and a worker is not legally required to provide proof such as a diagnosis letter; it publishes a request letter template. | Regional law or rule | Acas (2025) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexiaGlossary |
| Acas says an employer has the same responsibility if it could reasonably be expected to know someone is disabled. | Regional law or rule | Acas (2024) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work? |
| The BDA's employer guide says a diagnostic report should not be a requirement for a workplace needs assessment or reasonable adjustments, and there is no duty on an employer to pay for a diagnostic assessment though it is good practice. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work? |
| Access to Work is a grant for support beyond employer adjustments for people 16 or over in paid work in England, Scotland and Wales; dyslexia is named and no diagnosis is needed to apply; Northern Ireland has a separate scheme; applicants contact the scheme to arrange its assessment. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or lawGOV.UK Government or lawnidirect (Northern Ireland Government) Government or lawBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexiaGlossary |
| Canadian federal guidance says employees need not disclose a specific diagnosis; Ontario guidance says providers may ask about the nature of the disability rather than a diagnosis; an employee cannot insist on the ideal option. | Regional law or rule | Canadian Human Rights Commission Government or lawOntario Human Rights Commission Charity or professional bodyCanadian Human Rights Commission Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| IHREC explains reasonable accommodation, disproportionate burden and Workplace Relations Commission time limits; JobAccess offers free, confidential advice on 1800 464 800. | Regional law or rule | Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission (IHREC) Government or lawJobAccess, Australian Government Department of Social Services Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| For employer-funded BDA assessments, only a summary without test scores is shared, and only with permission; the report includes recommendations. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work? |
| Employers can usually choose between effective accommodation options. | Regional law or rule | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Government or lawCanadian Human Rights Commission Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| Acas says an employer can consider getting medical advice to help decide what adjustments are needed. | Regional law or rule | Acas (2025) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work?What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| JAN says it is generally up to the individual when to disclose, there is generally no obligation until accommodation is needed, there is no requirement to tell coworkers, and a written request documents the request. | Regional law or rule | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| Acas says nobody has to tell their employer they are disabled, it is up to the person when, and the employer should keep it confidential unless the person agrees. | Regional law or rule | Acas (2024) Government or lawAcas (2025) Government or law | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| The NHS recommends that adults who work tell their employer about dyslexia so changes such as screen readers or information on video can be made. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| The BDA notes some people do not feel confident disclosing dyslexia for fear it will be misunderstood or prejudice their chances. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| JAN's employee guide suggests saying what you are having trouble doing, that it relates to a disability, and your accommodation ideas, and putting the request in writing for a paper trail; no legal terms are needed. | Practical suggestion | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or lawJob Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or law | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| Reading-related accommodation ideas include text-to-speech, screen reading software and written instructions (JAN), and material before meetings, recording and dictation software (BDA). | Practical suggestion | Job Accommodation Network (JAN) Government or lawBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexiaGlossary |
| The BDA guide encourages employers to contact candidates about adjustments for selection tests and interviews, and to allow a reader or screen reading technology unless the test assesses reading needed in the role. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | What to say when telling an employer about dyslexia |
| A 2016 systematic review of 51 items found most studies at high or uncertain risk of bias; better-designed studies gave less support; improvements were small and similar to placebo; use cannot be endorsed; benefits likely reflect placebo, practice or Hawthorne effects. | Established guidance | Griffiths PG, Taylor RH, Henderson LM, Barrett BT. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 36(5):519-544. doi:10.1111/opo.12316 (2016) Peer-reviewed research | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| The 2009 joint statement of US pediatric and eye-care bodies found no scientific support for tinted filters or lenses improving long-term educational performance and said they are not endorsed; the 2011 technical report said colored lenses and filters are not supported as treatments. | Established guidance | American Academy of Pediatrics; American Academy of Ophthalmology; American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus; American Association of Certified Orthoptists. Pediatrics 124(2):837-844 (2009) Peer-reviewed researchHandler SM, Fierson WM, et al., for the American Academy of Pediatrics and partner eye-care organizations. Pediatrics 127(3):e818-e856 (2011) Peer-reviewed research | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| The 2025 Delphi panel agreed visual stress is separate from dyslexia but can make text harder to process; the BDA says people with and without dyslexia experience visual discomfort. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| The BDA describes evidence for overlays relieving visual stress as mixed, says they make reading more comfortable for some and may be a reasonable adjustment, but do not relieve dyslexic reading difficulties; it advises a registered optometrist for visual symptoms. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| Immersive Reader in Edge offers page themes, and Accessibility Reader on iPhone lets users set text and background colors. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentationApple (2026) Product documentation | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| A fair self-test of a tint compares similar passages on different days in alternating order. | Practical suggestion | Griffiths PG, Taylor RH, Henderson LM, Barrett BT. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 36(5):519-544. doi:10.1111/opo.12316 (2016) Peer-reviewed research | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| The NHS states that dyslexia does not affect intelligence. | Established guidance | NHS (England) Government or law | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| The 2009 Rose definition says dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| The 1968 World Federation of Neurology definition tied dyslexia to failing to attain literacy commensurate with intellectual abilities; dissatisfaction grew from the 1980s; Stanovich and Siegel (1994) argued causes did not differ by discrepancy; IDA 2002 removed the discrepancy reference. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| NICHD reported in 2011 a study of 131 readers aged 7 to 16 finding similar brain imaging results in children with dyslexia regardless of IQ, concluding the discrepancy model is not a valid basis for allocating reading services; the lead author said all children with dyslexia should be eligible for support. | Preliminary or mixed findings | NICHD (2011) Government or law | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| ICD-11 requires reading below expectations for age and intellectual ability, while DSM-5 moves away from the ability-attainment discrepancy. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| The Delphi panel agreed a discrepancy is a useful indicator but not sufficient for diagnosis, the authors say it should not be considered necessary, support should go to everyone with literacy difficulties, and intellectual ability should not be an absolute measure for diagnosis or services. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| The Delphi authors say assessing intellectual abilities is useful when diagnosing and planning support. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| Views differ on applying the dyslexia label with intellectual disability; ICD-11 suggests it can be used if reading is below expectation given general cognitive difficulties; the Delphi panel noted it may lead to too narrow an approach. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| Several studies of high-achieving adults confirm a dyslexic processing profile with reading and spelling difficulties associated with phonological processing weaknesses. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence?Can you have dyslexia and read well? |
| BDA remote assessment sessions usually run 2 to 4 hours with breaks; the assessor has 15 working days to write the report and the BDA emails it within a further 5 working days. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| Dyslexia Scotland guidance dated February 2024 says an adult assessment usually lasts around 2 hours, costs 300 to 650 GBP and occasionally more, and that there are no free assessments for adults. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Scotland (2024) Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take?Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| As read in October 2026 (undated), the BDA said remote appointments are usually available within one month and in-person assessors often book months in advance. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| As read in October 2026 (undated), the BDA listed self-funded assessments at 690 GBP with a specialist teacher and 882 GBP with a psychologist, including VAT, and a dyscalculia assessment with a specialist teacher. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Does dyslexia affect math? |
| Dyslexia Ireland listed its adult dyslexia assessment fee as 350 euro, with no date shown, and offers adult dyscalculia assessments. | Regional law or rule | Dyslexia Ireland Charity or professional body | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia?Does dyslexia affect math? |
| A 2018 overview of four systematic reviews found three concluded there is insufficient good-quality evidence for overlays or lenses and one concluded the evidence supports them; on balance there is not yet a reliable evidence base to recommend them for reading difficulty or discomfort. | Established guidance | Suttle, Lawrenson and Conway. Clinical and Experimental Optometry 101(4): 514-520 (doi:10.1111/cxo.12676) (2018) Peer-reviewed research | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| A study of 24 university students with dyslexia and 24 without reported a benefit from wide letter spacing but none from a colored overlay. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Sjoblom, Eaton and Stagg. British Journal of Educational Psychology 86(4): 630-639 (doi:10.1111/bjep.12127) (2016) Peer-reviewed research | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia?Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| College of Optometrists guidance says the use of tinted lenses for visual stress remains controversial and optometrists should not claim these interventions treat specific learning difficulties. | Regional law or rule | College of Optometrists Charity or professional body | Do colored overlays help with dyslexia? |
| A 2002 meta-analysis of 46 studies found substantial overlap between IQ-discrepant and IQ-consistent poor readers and little evidence for the validity of IQ-discrepancy classification. | Established guidance | Stuebing, Fletcher, LeDoux, Lyon, Shaywitz and Shaywitz. American Educational Research Journal 39(2): 469-518 (ERIC EJ654819) (2002) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| A 2010 longitudinal study reported that reading and IQ are dynamically linked over time in typical readers but develop more independently in readers with dyslexia. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione and Shaywitz. Psychological Science 21(1): 93-101 (doi:10.1177/0956797609354084) (2010) Peer-reviewed research | Is dyslexia related to intelligence? |
| Developmental dyslexia has a childhood onset and is distinguished from acquired dyslexia with a neurological cause such as brain injury; acquired dyslexia is relatively rare and normally has a clear organic cause. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| The NHS uses FAST (face, arms, speech, time to call 999) for stroke, lists blurred vision or loss of sight, and advises against driving yourself to A&E. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) (2024) Government or law | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| The Stroke Association describes alexia as finding reading difficult because written words are not recognized, sometimes called word blindness, and agraphia as difficulty writing. | Established guidance | Stroke Association (UK) (2015) Charity or professional body | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| Aphasia affects speaking, understanding, reading and writing; stroke is the most common cause; others include severe head injury, brain tumour, bleeding or infection, and conditions such as dementia; it is treated with speech and language therapy. | Established guidance | NHS (England) (2025) Government or lawNational Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIH) (2025) Government or law | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| Around one-third of stroke survivors have problems with speaking, reading, writing and understanding. | Established guidance | Stroke Association (UK) Charity or professional body | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| Aphasia can appear suddenly after brain surgery or a head injury, or develop gradually from a brain tumor; speech and language therapists assess aphasia; reading problems may also come from altered vision. | Established guidance | National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIH) (2025) Government or lawHeadway, the brain injury association (UK) Charity or professional body | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| Presbyopia makes it hard for middle-aged and older adults to see up close, usually after age 45, and is checked in an eye exam. | Established guidance | National Eye Institute (NIH) (2024) Government or law | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| The way dyslexia shows up can change over time depending on context, and adult difficulties may become more noticeable as work demands increase. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchHolden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| IDA 2002 names poor spelling and decoding; Rose 2009 names accurate and fluent word reading and spelling; IDA 2025 names word reading and/or spelling; the Delphi definition names the acquisition of reading and spelling and treats fluency and spelling as a key marker. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchNational Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect spelling?GlossaryWhat is dysgraphia? |
| Spelling difficulties are often persistent in dyslexia; the relationship of spelling to reading is understudied, and there is little consensus on how to assess spelling fluency. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| The IDA says many people with dyslexia learn to read fairly well but spelling difficulties tend to persist; most learners can read more words than they can spell; visual memory plays a relatively minor role in learning to spell; spellcheckers do not identify all errors. | Established guidance | International Dyslexia Association (prepared with Louisa Cook Moats) Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect spelling?Can you have dyslexia and read well?What is dysgraphia? |
| Encoding means determining the spelling of a word from its sounds. | Established guidance | Foorman et al., What Works Clearinghouse, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education (2016) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| In languages with very regular spelling, accuracy often develops quickly and difficulties appear mainly in speed; in English and Danish they often affect accuracy and speed. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect spelling?Dyslexia in a second languageGlossary |
| In a study of 100 Dutch-speaking university students with dyslexia and 100 controls, the largest differences were in reading speed (d 1.60 to 1.90) and spelling (d about 2, for accuracy as well as speed), with arithmetic about 1, phonological processing above 0.7, text comprehension about 0.4 and no significant difference in fluid intelligence. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Callens, Tops and Brysbaert. PLoS ONE 7(6): e38081 (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038081) (2012) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect spelling?Can you have dyslexia and read well?Does dyslexia affect math? |
| UK guidance treats minor problems with writing or spelling as not a substantial adverse effect. | Regional law or rule | Office for Disability Issues, HM Government (2011) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| Word Editor suggestions can be read aloud; dictation is available on iPhone and in Word; the BDA lists allowing colleagues to proofread among adjustments. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentationApple (2026) Product documentationMicrosoft Support Product documentationBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| Not all poor readers are dyslexic, and other potential causes of reading difficulty need to be excluded. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect spelling? |
| Dyslexia can affect the acquisition of other skills such as mathematics, reading comprehension or learning another language. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect math?Dyslexia in a second language |
| A 2020 meta-analysis of 33 studies found an average weighted odds ratio of 2.12 (95% CI 1.76 to 2.55) for co-occurring reading and math disabilities; no tested moderator explained the variation. | Established guidance | Joyner and Wagner. Scientific Studies of Reading 24(1): 14-22 (doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1593420) (2020) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect math? |
| The BDA says many learners with dyslexia also have maths learning difficulties, including word problems, number bonds and times tables, symbols and vocabulary, and forgetting procedures. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math? |
| The NHS says dyslexia can also affect things like using numbers. | Established guidance | NHS (England) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect math? |
| The Rose definition lists mental calculation among co-occurring difficulties that are not by themselves markers of dyslexia. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Does dyslexia affect math? |
| The BDA defines dyscalculia as a specific and persistent difficulty in understanding numbers leading to diverse difficulties with mathematics, describes maths difficulties as a continuum with many causes, and says it can co-occur with other SpLDs and maths anxiety. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math?Glossary |
| The 2025 SASC definition describes a specific learning difficulty in mathematics as processing difficulties affecting arithmetic and other areas, with numerical magnitude processing the most common difficulty in dyscalculia. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC), published on the British Dyslexia Association website (2025) Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math?Glossary |
| A specific learning difficulty in maths is more common than dyscalculia. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math?Glossary |
| DSM-5 combines reading, written expression and mathematics under one specific learning disorder diagnosis with specifiers. | Established guidance | American Psychiatric Association (2024) Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math?What is dysgraphia?Glossary |
| Reading word problems aloud with text-to-speech, keeping procedure cards and using calculators are practical ideas, not proven for individuals. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Does dyslexia affect math? |
| Dyslexia frequently co-occurs with ADHD, and more research is needed on shared and specific risk factors. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia and ADHD in adultsHow common is dyslexia? |
| The IDA estimates 30% of people with dyslexia have coexisting AD/HD, without citing a source, and says AD/HD evaluation is by a physician or psychologist. | Preliminary or mixed findings | International Dyslexia Association (2020) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| Approximately 20 to 40% of individuals with reading problems show comorbid ADHD symptoms (Willcutt and Pennington 2000, as cited). | Preliminary or mixed findings | Daucourt, Erbeli, Little, Haughbrook and Hart. Scientific Studies of Reading 24(1): 23-56 (doi:10.1080/10888438.2019.1631827) (2020) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| In a Rochester, Minnesota birth cohort of 5,718 children, reading disability by age 19 occurred in 51% of boys and 46.7% of girls with ADHD versus 14.5% and 7.7% without. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Yoshimasu, Barbaresi, Colligan, Killian et al. Pediatrics 126(4): e788-e795 (doi:10.1542/peds.2010-1187) (2010) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| A review of 17 studies (2001 to 2011) found a mean ADHD and learning disability comorbidity rate of 45.1%. | Preliminary or mixed findings | DuPaul, Gormley and Laracy. Journal of Learning Disabilities 46(1): 43-51 (doi:10.1177/0022219412464351) (2013) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| In England, a GP may refer an adult to an ADHD specialist such as a psychiatrist; symptoms usually start before 12; adults may wait several months or years for specialist services. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) (2025) Government or law | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| NIMH says adults must have shown symptoms before age 12, evaluation uses clinical interviews and rating scales by primary care or mental health professionals, and testing may identify possible learning disabilities. | Regional law or rule | National Institute of Mental Health (2024) Government or law | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| UK guidance says SpLDs can co-exist with overlapping conditions and assessors should refer on; the BDA says a psychologist may be engaged where several conditions are involved; assessors note attention, anxiety and fatigue. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional bodyBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| Stress, sadness, loneliness, poor sleep and low fitness can make a person appear to have executive function difficulties like ADHD when they do not. | Established guidance | Diamond. Annual Review of Psychology 64: 135-168 (doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750) (2013) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia and ADHD in adultsGlossary |
| The SEND code of practice names dyslexia, dyscalculia and dyspraxia as specific learning difficulties; the BDA guide also covers ADHD, which can exist alone but commonly co-occurs with SpLDs. | Regional law or rule | Department for Education and Department of Health (England) (2015) Government or lawBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia and ADHD in adultsGlossary |
| Access to Work names ADHD and dyslexia as example conditions. | Regional law or rule | GOV.UK Government or law | Dyslexia and ADHD in adults |
| A 2017 study of 12 elementary students found OpenDyslexic did not improve reading rate or accuracy and none preferred it. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Wery JJ, Diliberto JA. Annals of Dyslexia 67(2):114-127. doi:10.1007/s11881-016-0127-1 (2017) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| Two 2018 experiments (170 children with dyslexia; then 102 with and 45 without) found no speed or accuracy benefit from Dyslexie; most preferred Arial or Times New Roman. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Kuster SM, van Weerdenburg M, Gompel M, Bosman AMT. Annals of Dyslexia 68(1):25-42. doi:10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6 (2018) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| A 2025 study of 5 adults with dyslexia found no significant differences in accuracy or efficiency between Dyslexie, Arial and Times New Roman. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Machado, Elmore and Hall. Behavior Analysis in Practice 18(4): 1186-1192 (doi:10.1007/s40617-025-01048-x) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| A 2012 study of 74 Italian and French children aged 8 to 14 found that increasing letter spacing by 2.5 points doubled text reading accuracy and raised speed by about 0.3 syllables per second; reading-level-matched younger controls showed no such effect. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Zorzi, Barbiero, Facoetti et al. PNAS 109(28): 11455-11459 (doi:10.1073/pnas.1205566109) (2012) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| A 2016 study of 24 dyslexic and 24 non-dyslexic university students found large letter spacing improved reading speed generally and accuracy for dyslexic readers. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Sjoblom, Eaton and Stagg. British Journal of Educational Psychology 86(4): 630-639 (doi:10.1111/bjep.12127) (2016) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| A 2013 study of 48 people with dyslexia reading in 12 fonts found sans serif, monospaced and roman styles improved reading performance over serif, proportional and italic. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Rello and Baeza-Yates. ASSETS 2013 (doi:10.1145/2513383.2513447) (2013) Peer-reviewed research | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| The BDA 2023 style guide recommends sans serif fonts, 12 to 14 point (16 to 19 px), letter spacing about 35% of average letter width, word spacing at least 3.5 times letter spacing, 1.5 line spacing, bold rather than underlining or italics, no continuous capitals, left alignment, and dark text on a light non-white background. | Practical suggestion | British Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| Edge Immersive Reader, iPhone Accessibility Reader and Chrome reading mode let users change font, size and spacing. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentationApple (2026) Product documentationGoogle Chrome Help Product documentation | Do dyslexia fonts help? |
| Fluent reading means reading accurately, at an appropriate rate and with expression; comprehension depends on decoding, word knowledge, fluency and spoken language. | Established guidance | Foorman et al., What Works Clearinghouse, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education (2016) Government or law | Can you have dyslexia and read well?Glossary |
| In adults, basic decoding may be adequate while fluency remains an issue; some people with dyslexia use strong language skills to avoid comprehension difficulties while others have comprehension problems. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can you have dyslexia and read well?Glossary |
| People with dyslexia may develop other skills to compensate, and after intervention and support reading may no longer be experienced as disabling though it may remain challenging. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Can you have dyslexia and read well? |
| The SASC list includes TOWRE-2, a timed test of real and nonsense word reading, and the Advanced Reading Comprehension test, which can be timed or untimed and has norms from 80 first-year psychology students. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | Can you have dyslexia and read well?Glossary |
| Manifestations of dyslexia differ depending on orthography, phonology, grammar and morphology. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in a second language |
| The IDA advises assessing reading and writing in the native language, comparing with peers of similar language background, and notes fluency and spelling may be better indicators in transparent languages; its guidance is written for school students. | Practical suggestion | International Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in a second language |
| In 20 multilingual university students with dyslexia and 20 without, problems surfaced most clearly in a less proficient, orthographically opaque foreign language; a companion study found the most prominent differences on accuracy measures. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Lindgren and Laine. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 25(9): 753-766 (doi:10.3109/02699206.2011.562594) (2011) Peer-reviewed researchLindgren and Laine. Dyslexia 17(2): 184-200 (doi:10.1002/dys.422) (2011) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in a second language |
| Evidence that dyslexia affects foreign language learning is less established; a meta-analysis on learning English as a foreign language found highly variable results. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | Dyslexia in a second language |
| UK assessors record linguistic history, and English as an additional language or a complex linguistic history could help explain results. | Regional law or rule | SpLD Assessment Standards Committee (SASC) (2025) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in a second language |
| A 2012 BDA report on bilingual children found second-language difficulties can mask SpLD risk and stressed knowing the first language and literacy in it. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Mortimore, Hansen, Hutchings et al. for the British Dyslexia Association and Bath Spa University (2012) Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in a second language |
| A person can have dyslexia and also have learned in more than one language; assessment should not exclude people learning English as an additional language. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (developed under a US Department of Education grant) (2026) Government or law | Dyslexia in a second language |
| The BDA assessment service asks for seven years living in an English-speaking country and regularly speaking English. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Dyslexia in a second language |
| Reported prevalence rates vary between about 5% and 20% depending on cut-off criteria; some researchers argue prevalence is better described as a distribution of severity, and unexpectedly poor readers are found at all levels. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | How common is dyslexia? |
| The BDA says ten percent of the population are believed to be dyslexic, without a stated method. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | How common is dyslexia? |
| SPELD NSW says dyslexia is the most common learning difficulty, affecting between 5% and 10% of people. | Regional law or rule | SPELD NSW Charity or professional body | How common is dyslexia? |
| The IDA 2020 fact sheet says 13 to 14% of US school students qualify for special education, about half of them (6 to 7%) with a learning disability, about 85% of whom have a primary disability in reading and language processing, and that perhaps 15 to 20% of people have some features of dyslexia. | Regional law or rule | International Dyslexia Association (2020) Charity or professional body | How common is dyslexia? |
| The NHS describes dyslexia as a common learning difficulty and gives no prevalence figure. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) Government or law | How common is dyslexia? |
| Dyslexic difficulties exist on a continuum and can be experienced to various degrees of severity. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | How common is dyslexia? |
| Children in more affluent areas of England had higher chances of identification with SpLD than those in deprived areas; the BDA says many people are undiagnosed, partly because of private funding. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Holden, Kirby, Snowling, Thompson and Carroll. Dyslexia 31(1): e1800 (doi:10.1002/dys.1800) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | How common is dyslexia? |
| The BDA adopted the Delphi definition and IDA released its first revised definition since 2002 in 2025; DSM-5 and ICD-11 use their own terms. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association (2025) Charity or professional bodyLD@school (Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario) (2025) Charity or professional bodyCarroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed research | How common is dyslexia?Glossary |
| The LDA describes dysgraphia as impaired ability to produce legible and automatic letter writing and often numeral writing, which may interfere with math. | Established guidance | Learning Disabilities Association of America Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia?Glossary |
| NCIL defines dysgraphia as a specific learning disability in writing, such as difficulty with spelling, handwriting or recording ideas. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (US Department of Education funded) Government or law | What is dysgraphia?Glossary |
| The BDA SpLD guide calls dysgraphia diagnosis contentious, notes it is not listed in the SEND Code, quotes the National Handwriting Association that dysgraphia does not appear in DSM-5 and that it prefers "an impairment in written expression", and says the Dyspraxia Foundation prefers "handwriting difficulties". | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia?Glossary |
| Handwriting blends motor, perceptual and orthographic skills; difficulties can affect writing legibly, fluently and comfortably; assessments should state the nature of the difficulty; identification in the UK is by an educational or clinical psychologist or SpLD assessor. | Regional law or rule | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia? |
| Not everyone with dyspraxia has dysgraphia; poor handwriting can occur without dyspraxia and is frequently reported in children with ADHD, dyslexia or autism. | Preliminary or mixed findings | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia? |
| The NHS says dyspraxia can make daily activities like writing difficult and a GP may refer adults to a specialist such as an occupational therapist. | Regional law or rule | NHS (England) (2026) Government or law | What is dysgraphia? |
| The SASC list includes DASH 17+ (ages 17 to 25) with alphabet writing, copy best, copy fast and 10-minute free writing tasks, and DASH-2 (ages 8 to 25). | Regional law or rule | SpLD Test Evaluation Committee (STEC) of SASC (2024) Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia? |
| The LDA describes learning disabilities, including dysgraphia, as lifelong, with an impact that can change over time. | Established guidance | Learning Disabilities Association of America (2025) Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia? |
| Windows voice typing opens with Windows logo key and H; iPhone dictation is enabled in Settings, General, Keyboard; the BDA lists dictation software among workplace adjustments. | Practical suggestion | Microsoft Support Product documentationApple (2026) Product documentationBritish Dyslexia Association (2023) Charity or professional body | What is dysgraphia?Glossary |
| The Delphi definition, adopted by the BDA, describes processing difficulties affecting reading and spelling acquisition; IDA revised its definition in 2025; only a diagnostic assessment can formally identify dyslexia. | Established guidance | Carroll, Holden, Kirby, Thompson, Snowling and the Dyslexia Delphi Panel. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (doi:10.1111/jcpp.14123) (2025) Peer-reviewed researchBritish Dyslexia Association (2025) Charity or professional bodyLD@school (Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario) (2025) Charity or professional bodyBritish Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | GlossaryDoes dyslexia affect spelling? |
| Some people only discover they are dyslexic in adulthood. | Established guidance | British Dyslexia Association Charity or professional body | Can dyslexia start in adulthood? |
| The EHRC employment code says there is no need to establish a medically diagnosed cause for an impairment; what matters is its effect. | Regional law or rule | Equality and Human Rights Commission (2011) Government or law | Do I need a diagnosis to get accommodations at work? |
| NCIL defines dyscalculia as a specific learning disability in math, such as difficulty making sense of and working with numbers. | Established guidance | National Center on Improving Literacy (US Department of Education funded) Government or law | Does dyslexia affect math?Glossary |
| EEOC guidance says mental impairments covered by the ADA include specific learning disabilities. | Regional law or rule | US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2011) Government or law | Is dyslexia a disability? |
| Queen Mary University of London says the diagnostic assessments its disability service arranges are remote and take around three hours. | Regional law or rule | Disability and Dyslexia Service, Queen Mary University of London University | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| US university guidelines ask for cognitive ability, achievement and information processing, and Penn says no diagnosis should rest on a single test; NICHD describes a series of tests of memory, spelling, visual perception and reading. | Regional law or rule | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania UniversityServices to Students with Disabilities, California State University, San Bernardino (2022) UniversityEunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (2020) Government or law | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| A 2017 review of 12 adult studies found verbal tests gave similar results by video and in person; it covered general cognitive tests, not dyslexia assessments. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Brearly TW, Shura RD, Martindale SL, et al. Neuropsychology Review 27(2):174-186 (2017) Peer-reviewed research | How long does a dyslexia assessment take? |
| The University of Pennsylvania lists clinical and educational psychologists, school psychologists, neuropsychologists and physicians with added adult training as evaluators, asks for license or certification, rules out evaluating family members, and wants adult testing from the past five years on adult norms. | Regional law or rule | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania University | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| Universities set their own documentation rules. | Regional law or rule | Services to Students with Disabilities, California State University, San Bernardino (2022) University | Who can diagnose dyslexia in adults? |
| Reading skill is continuously distributed, so diagnostic cut-offs are partly arbitrary; a threshold of 1.5 standard deviations below the mean identifies roughly 7% of the population. | Established guidance | Hulme and Snowling. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 28(6): 731-735 (2016) Peer-reviewed research | How common is dyslexia? |
| NCES reports that 28% of US adults aged 16 to 65 performed at Level 1 or below in literacy in PIAAC 2023, up from 19% in 2017, with a caution about comparing rounds; PIAAC measures literacy, not dyslexia. | Established guidance | National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education (2024) Government or lawNational Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education Government or law | How common is dyslexia? |
| In a 2012 study, 417 adults rated their reading on a 15-item questionnaire and 344 took literacy tests; ratings tracked measured literacy but the questionnaire missed some adults with low literacy. | Preliminary or mixed findings | Snowling, Dawes, Nash and Hulme. Dyslexia 18(1): 1-15 (2012) Peer-reviewed research | Is there a dyslexia test for adults? |
| Penn asks for adult testing from the past five years on adult norms and says no diagnosis should rest on a single test; the YAA-R was normed on 106 adults without dyslexia and checked against 20 with dyslexia; NIH says learning disabilities can last a lifetime. | Established guidance | Weingarten Center, University of Pennsylvania UniversityWarmington, Stothard and Snowling. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 13(1): 48-56 (2013) Peer-reviewed researchEunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health Government or law | Can adults be diagnosed with dyslexia? |
| A 2019 review describes dysgraphia as a disturbance in the mechanics of writing, reports that about half of children with DCD have difficulty learning to write, and cites DCD persisting into adulthood in 30 to 70% of cases; handwriting tests score legibility and speed and there is no gold-standard test. | Established guidance | Biotteau M, Danna J, Baudou E, et al. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 15: 1873-1885 (2019) Peer-reviewed research | What is dysgraphia? |